A r c h i v e d  I n f o r m a t i o n

How Tutors Can Support Young Readers (continued)

Setting the Stage for Success

To set the stage for success, tutors need to know exactly what they are helping a child accomplish. What does it mean to read and write? What are readers and writers able to do?

Reading includes more than word knowledge or pronouncing words correctly. Readers must take meaning from the text to be considered engaged readers. Engaged readers are:⁶

• motivated - they read for pleasure, for information, and to learn skills;
• knowledgeable - they use past experiences to make sense of what they read, learn from reading, and apply what they learn in a variety of ways;
• strategic - they use thinking skills to decode and construct meaning; and
• communicative - they discuss what they have read to share ideas and to expand their understanding.

Writing involves more than forming the letters of the alphabet and using correct grammar, spelling, and punctuation. Engaged writers express creativity, tell stories, and share ideas. Like listening and talking, writing helps children improve their reading skills. Children learn about writing at the same time as and in conjunction with reading.

The primary goal of your one-on-one tutoring sessions is to help a child gain the skills needed to become an engaged reader and writer. What you do during each session will vary depending on the child's age, abilities, and other individual characteristics. However, everything you do with the child should be leading him or her to attain this goal.

Prepare for the First Tutoring Session

Most tutoring programs help tutors prepare for their first sessions by providing an orientation to the program's philosophy, curriculum, and procedures. You can review the information in the previous chapter, read about literacy and tutoring, and visit the child's child care or Head Start program or school. The first session is an opportunity to begin surrounding the child "with trust, love, and genuine praise for individual achievements." Here are seven steps to help you prepare for your first tutoring session:

Step 1. Learn about the child. Make sure you know the child's first and last names and how to pronounce them correctly. Learn about and show respect for the child's culture, home language, and community.

Step 2. Contact the child's teacher and family. This will help you learn about the child's learning style, skills, interests, and any special needs that might affect the child's literacy development. It also introduces you to the other people who are supporting the child's emerging literacy or reading and writing skills. You can discuss ways to keep each other informed about the child's activities and progress.

Step 3. Make a "tutors tool box." Put your tutoring supplies in a bag or backpack, designated just for this purpose. Include a notebook or journal for yourself, lined and unlined paper, index cards, markers, pencils with working erasers, books, a three-hole punch and laces for binding books, and other reading and writing materials appropriate for the child's age level.

Step 4. Start a collection of "conversation starters." Clip cartoons, jokes, popular song lyrics, short poems, photographs, and magazine articles to use as conversation-starters and to encourage writing skills. Collect "found" objects that a child of this age is likely to find interesting - giant and tiny pinecones, shiny rocks, a toy from your childhood. Add new items as you get to know the child.

Step 5. Visit the children's section of your local library. Ask the librarian to point out several high-quality children's books. Learn what books are appropriate for different age groups and levels of reading ability. Review examples of the different kinds of books children enjoy such as wordless picture books, picture books, beginning readers, chapter books, concept books, books of jokes and riddles, simple biographies, and books about a special topic.

Step 6. Plan what will you do at the start of your tutoring session.  

Here are some suggestions:⁷

• Share what makes you a unique individual. Introduce yourself and talk about your experiences and interests. Bring something real that represents who you are and can stimulate a conversation with the child. For example, you could bring some photographs, a vacation souvenir, some shells from a collection, a well-loved children's book, or equipment such as a bike helmet or basketball used for your favorite sport.
• Write your name and phone number on two index cards. Give these to the child at your first session and explain that one is for him and one is for his family.
• Read a story suitable to the child's age level.
• Play a question game. You and the child can ask each other three questions that are easy to answer and not too personal. For example, you might ask, "Tell me about your favorite holiday?" "What do you like best about school?" Tailor the questions to the child's age and what you already know about her interests.
• Make a Talking About Books Journal. You and the child can make a cover for the journal. The child can write messages to you about books and reading, ask questions, share ideas, and tell you what he likes and dislikes about tutoring. A younger child can dictate her message while you write it. When she is finished, read it to her. Using a journal helps children build confidence in their ability to express their ideas and feelings in writing. This is a key first step in learning to write. When you write back, respond to the content of the child's message without correcting mistakes in grammar, spelling, or word usage. Model how to follow the rules of writing in your entries.
• Follow the steps on the next page to make an All About Us book with the child. You will need paper, markers or crayons, a piece of cardboard or oaktag paper (for the cover) and a stapler.

Step 7. Be prepared. Develop and review your plans. Gather your materials. Look at a map to make sure you know where you are going and how long it will take to get there. Relax. Remember how pleased the child will be to have your help in learning to read.

Using Effective Tutoring Strategies

Many of the strategies tutors use are based on the program's reading curriculum or the age of the child with whom they work. Others are appropriate for children throughout preschool and the primary grades and are likely to support any effective curriculum. Suggested strategies follow.

PLAN FOR EACH CHILD

Follow an agenda for each session. Most tutoring programs follow a specific agenda for each session. (See Chapter 6, Developing a Tutoring Program, for descriptions of tutoring agendas.) For younger children the agenda might include time for play, reading aloud, and drawing or writing with the tutor. A typical agenda for children in the primary grades includes time to review the previous session, read, write, complete a summary activity wrap up, and assign a follow-up assignment. As part of the "wrap up" for each session, you may want to have the child discuss with you what happened during the day, what he liked or didn't like. In some programs, the child might receive a sticker or some other form of recognition. Arrive early for each session so you can start as soon as the child is ready and keep the session fast-paced and on schedule.

Tailor the agenda to each child's unique characteristics. Think of what you can do to individualize the session for the child. What strategies will build on the child's learning style, skills, culture, home language, and interests? How can you address specific learning goals? If the child has special needs or disabilities that affect learning, seek expert advice on how best to build on the child's capabilities. Be sure to add any needed books or materials to your tool box.

Adjust the plan if needed. Understand that experiences in and out of school can affect a child's ability to focus. Pay attention to the child's body language. As needed, address the child's feelings so you can get back on track. "You seem to be a little tired today. Let's read together today. You can read on your own next time."

Focus on learning. Remember that your primary responsibility is to support the child's reading and literacy development. Playing the role of mentor for the child should be secondary to, and generally in support of, the role of reading tutor. If you have concerns about the child's physical or social well-being, discuss them with your supervisor so he or she can address the family's needs directly or through referral to another agency.

Form a partnership with the child's family. Set up a communication system--notes, a journal, an audiotape--to keep each other informed about the child's activities and progress. Involve the child and family in creating and using a portfolio to track progress and plan ways to encourage reading and writing at home and during tutoring sessions. A portfolio is a collection of items that show what and how a child has learned. The child will enjoy making a portfolio folder out of construction paper, laced with yarn or other materials. The child can decorate the folder during free time or while you and the child are talking. (See Chapter 4, Involving Families in Tutoring Programs, for more information on building partnerships with families.)

Keep in touch with the child's teacher. Share information about the child's interests, skills, and progress. Use tutoring strategies that complement and build on how and what the child is learning at a child care or Head Start program or in school. Sometimes it will be necessary to work out specific procedures and a time so that this actually takes place.

INCORPORATE CONDITIONS OF LEARNING⁸

Brian Cambourne, a New Zealand educator, has identified "conditions of learning," that encourage children in preschool through the primary grades to become engaged readers and writers. You can incorporate these conditions in your one-on-one tutoring sessions by using the following tutoring strategies:

Expose the child to many kinds of reading and writing materials. Introduce different kinds of books, signs, charts, songs, poems, and writing materials during your tutoring sessions. Tutors need to work as a team with the child's family and teacher. Show the child how you use language for different reasons. Let the child see you write notes and lists, make charts, read a book, sing songs, and share interesting stories from your own life.

Get the child actively involved. When you read aloud, invite the child to recite repeated words and phrases, turn the pages, and discuss the story and characters.

Expect that most children can learn to read and write. Learn what the child can do and build on these strengths. Encourage a child to explore, make discoveries, learn from mistakes, and believe in his or her own abilities.

Make the child a partner in the tutoring process. Help the child set goals for learning and keep track of progress. Ask, "What would you like to read and write?" "What do you like to do?" "What would you like to know about?" Address the child's goals and interests in your tutoring sessions. Ask the child to help plan the follow-up assignment and the next session.

Offer support throughout the learning process. Respond to a child's efforts and encourage risk-taking. "That's right. The word begins with 'P'. Now, do you see any clues in the pictures?"

Help the child use language skills in functional and realistic ways. Create opportunities for the child to use language for different reasons--tell a story, express an opinion, explain ideas, make predictions, and solve problems.

Give children feedback about their learning. Encourage a child to express how and what he or she has learned. Keep track of progress by including items that show what and how a child has learned in a portfolio.

USE SCAFFOLDING TECHNIQUES

When a new building goes up it is surrounded by scaffolding, a framework that provides temporary support while the building is under construction. The scaffolding is gradually removed as different parts of the structure are completed and the building is able to stand on its own.

Like the scaffolding used in construction, scaffolding techniques used by parents, teachers, and tutors support a child as he or she is learning a new skill. The adult provides just enough support to help the child move forward. As the child makes incremental progress towards this goal, the adult gradually lets go so the child can function independently. The adult then helps the child use the skill to build new ones. Here is an example of how a tutor might use scaffolding techniques with a child trying to read a new word:

In the above example the tutor used several scaffolding techniques:

• The tutor and child worked on a problem together figuring out the new word, "blue."
• The tutor helped the child understand the connections between what he already knew and what he was learning the child knows his colors and can recognize the letter 'b.'
• The tutor was warm and responsive. She offered praise and acknowledged the child's incremental success in figuring out the new word.
• The tutor asked questions and offered clues to lead the child to make his own discoveries.

Here are some examples of scaffolding strategies you can use in tutoring sessions:

Encourage the child to think and problem solve. Ask questions that encourage the child to make predictions and solve problems. "What do you think might happen next?" Allow enough time for an answer silence might mean a child is thinking. When the child does respond ask, "How did you come up with that answer?" Restate a child's question to encourage him or her to answer it. Ask a child what he or she knows before offering an explanation. Avoid questions that can be answered with one word, such as "yes" or "no."

Help each child experience success. Include opportunities for incremental achievements in each tutoring session. Reinforce mastered skills and concepts and move to the next step so the child can continue making progress. Make comments, ask questions, and provide clues that help a child figure out how to read or write a new letter or word or remember what happened in a story you have read aloud.

Offer genuine praise for efforts and accomplishments. Notice small breakthroughs and gains as well as large ones. "I see you wrote a 'P' on your picture. That's the first letter in your name, 'Peter.'" "You're on the right track. The first part of the word is 'black.'" Encourage a child to take risks and learn from mistakes. Be specific in your feedback. Avoid hollow praise that is not related to the child's efforts and achievements children value candor and are quick to see through hypocrisy.

Build trust and respect. Always keep your commitments and let the child know in advance if you have to miss a session. When you make a mistake, say so. If you can't answer a question, help the child find an answer or offer to find the answer before the next session. Maintain confidentiality unless you suspect a child is living in an unsafe environment. If you suspect a child is at risk, follow your program's procedures for reporting your observations.

Motivating Children to Read⁹

. . . the central and most important goal of reading instruction is to foster the love of reading.

Linda B. Gambrell, The Reading Teacher, September 1996

Children who are read to often learn to value books and reading. Children who enjoy reading are likely to read more often. Children who read more often continue to improve their reading skills and overall school performance. Tutors can play a significant role in helping children discover the pleasures of reading.

Recent studies have identified characteristics of teachers and classroom environments that foster reading motivation. You can use these teaching behaviors and attitudes in your tutoring sessions with children. Some examples follow.

Serve as a reading model. Talk about what you are reading describe a character, read aloud a passage that uses beautiful words, recite a poem, introduce a new word, or read a newspaper or magazine account of a sports event. Share what you are interested in and what might be of interest to the child. This simple practice teaches a child how reading helps us learn new words, find out about the world, use our imaginations, and have fun.

Make sure the child has access to a variety of books. Children need plenty of books to choose from so they can find books of interest to read alone and with their families. You can work with families, teachers, and school and community libraries to achieve this goal. Encourage the child to choose which books to read. Children are most interested in reading when they can select the books they want to read. During a tutoring session with a child in a primary grade - grades one through three you can ask the child to read a book you selected, but also include an opportunity to read a book of his or her choice. Even younger children enjoy picking out books and learn from the experience.

Talk with the child about books. Talking leads to thinking and encourages a child to read more. Discuss the characters, how the story relates to real life, other books by the same author, books with similar themes, and what might happen next. Ask, "What did you like and not like about this book?" "What did you think of the pictures?"

Allow a child to read the same book again and again. Children develop a sense of competence by reading and rereading books with which they are familiar. When children have confidence in their reading skills they are more likely to choose new books to read on their own.

Arrange for children to tutor in pairs. Research shows that when children tutor one another, both of the children's interest in reading improves. Encourage peer tutoring among children of the same age and reading level or have older or more skilled readers help younger ones.

Offer appropriate reading-related incentives. Children learn to value books and reading when a book is the reward for reading. Your tutoring program can work with community partners to sponsor book giveaways through organizations such as Reading is Fundamental, Children's Literacy Initiative, First Book, and Rolling Readers. These organizations make it possible for children to choose books to keep as their own. They can take the books home, read them alone and with their families, and reread them as often as they like. (Appendix B, Resources for Tutoring Programs, includes contact information for these groups.)

Motivation is a key factor in ensuring that students become - or stay - interested in what they are learning. Researchers have described motivation as the 'skill and will' to learn.

Council for Educational Development and Research
What We Know About Reading Teaching and Learning, July 1992

[Chapter 3: How Tutors Can Support Young Readers]

[Chapter 3: Tutoring Strategies for Preschool and Kindergarten]